back to Country Profiles

This map displays primary areas of potato cultivation in Bolivia, based on national data reported by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) for 2003. Distribution and locally variable yield estimates are based primarily on the work of H.J. Hijmans et. al. (1999 and 2003). By this estimation of area and yields, total national production is nearly identical to the 787,000 metric tons reported by FAO.

Dots, each estimating 1,000 hectares of potato cultivation, are most concentrated within the altitude range where most potato cultivation occurs in Bolivia, very generally from 2,000 to 4,000 meters above sea level. The exception, as noted in the text, is the lower altitude areas in the Santa Cruz region. However, it is assumed that most potatoes grown in Santa Cruz are at relatively higher altitudes, generally to the west of the city.

 
For further information on Potato Production click here 

BOLIVIA LATE BLIGHT PROFILE(1)

Oscar Navia, Rudy Torez, Adhemar Trujillo, Enrique N. Fernández-Northcote,

Antonio Gandarillas and Julio Gabriel (2)

 

3- International Potato Center (CIP), Lima, Peru; Version 2003.0.0; Data sources Hijmans 2001; FAO (2000-2002);Update by Research Informatics Unit (cip-riu(at)cgiar.org). This map does not imply any opinion whatsoever on the part of the International Potato Center concerning the legal status of any country or area, or its authorities, or the delimitation of its frontiers

 

Incidence and losses
Potatoes are an essential crop and staple food for the people of Bolivia. For more than 200,000 families of smallholders, which constitute 30–40% of the total rural population of the country (Zeballos, 1997), potatoes are the main source of food and income. The vast majority of farmers are small-holders and resource-poor, cultivating less than a hectare. At 80–100 kg/year (Zeballos, 1997), the per capita consumption of potatoes is one of the highest in the world (Fernández-Northcote et al., 1999). 

About 130,000 ha are planted to potato, with average yields of 5 t/ha in the Bolivian Andes, whereas the world average is 14 t/ha – 26 t/ha (Horton, 1992; Zeballos, 1997).

In Bolivia, late blight caused by Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary is the most important potato disease of potato in humid areas, affecting approximately 20,000 ha of the potato crop, a large part of which is dedicated to seed production, including the formal sector. In these areas, late blight can devastate a potato crop in three or four days and losses can be as high as 100%.

This is often due the farmers’ lack of knowledge of adequate control strategies. Fields are often abandoned because farmers can do nothing to control the disease.

In economic terms, late blight is one of the most important diseases of potatoes, and it is estimated that more than 40,000 families of potato growers in Bolivia are affected. In the 20,000 ha of potatoes attacked by the disease, direct losses of about 30 million US$ per year occur. Most of the affected area is in regions producing seed potatoes, which, at present, barely cover 5% of the urgent national requirement for quality seed potatoes. This indirect loss caused by the disease highlights the importance of late blight in Bolivia as a factor limiting the production and the productivity of potatoes, which are the most important crop in the agricultural economy of the country (Bojanic, 1995).

Because the lack of knowledge about chemical control strategies to control the disease, farmers have developed a cultivation system based on disease avoidance, either in time – by planting at times of the year when disease pressure is lower (absence of disease or more irregular outbreaks) – or in space – by cultivating at times when disease pressure is high, but planting at higher altitudes (above 3400 m) where the lower temperatures are unfavorable to blight development. The consequence of practices aimed at avoiding the disease is low productivity, which goes against the current objective of increasing productivity for environmental reasons and future food requirements. (Fernández-Northcote et al., 1999).

The zones most affected by blight in Bolivia are (Figure 1): Morochata, El Choro, Falsuri, Cocapata, Independencia, Colomi, Corani, Chullchungani, Monte Punku, Lope Mendoza, Epizana, Escalante, Capinota, Tiraque, Arani, Capinota, Valle Alto, Valle Bajo and Mizque in the department of Cochabamba; Comarapa, Los Pinos, Verdecillos, San Isidro, Saipina, Rio Nuevo, Los Negros, San Pedro, San Marcos and Valle Grande in the departament of Santa Cruz; San Andres, La Huerta Concepción, Iscayachi, Pilaya and Entre Ríos in the departamento de Tarija; Tacacoma, Sorata, Inquisivi, Mohoza, Irupana, Coroico, Charazani, Chulina, Puerto Acosta, Amarette, and Moyapampa in the departament of La Paz; La Cordillera de El Rosal, Culpina and Incahuasi in the departament of Chuquisaca; and the lower elevations of the Potosí and Oruro departments (Navia et al., 1999).

Blight occurs in two types of zone. The zones with strong disease pressure are characterized by the presence of blight from the beginning of the season due to the temperature (11–25°C), and rainfall and/or the relative humidity that strongly favor late blight development. Total precipitation during the season is between 650–1770 mm. In areas with lower blight pressure, it is uncommon for the disease to appear early in the season. This is due to minimum temperatures lower than 11°C and /or accumulated weekly precipitation of less than 30 mm. In these areas the time of disease onset is variable. Total rainfall during the growing season is generally less than 650 mm (Fernández-Northcote et al., 1999).

 

Fungicides
In Bolivia a wide range of fungicides is used to control blight (Tables 1 and 2).

Table 1. Systemic fungicides used to control blight in Bolivia

Chemical class	Common name	Commercial name	Rate (%)
Cyanoacetamides-Oximas	Cymoxanil	Fitoraz (cymoxanil+propineb) Curzate (cymoxanil+maneb+Zinc sulfate monohydrate) Curathane (cymoxanil+mancozeb)	0.25
Phenylamides	Metalaxyl Ofurace Benalaxyl Oxadixyl	Ridomil MZ-72 Ridomil Gold Rancol (metalaxyl+mancozeb) Patafol (ofurace+mancozeb) Galven M (benalaxyl+mancozeb) Sandofan (oxadixyl+mancozeb)	0.25
Phosphites	Fosetyl-aluminium	Alliette (fosetil-Al)	0.25
Carbamates	Propamocarb HCL	Previcur N (propamocarb hydrochoride)	0.25
Cynamic acid derivatives	Dimethomorf	Acrobat (dimethomorph +mancozeb)	0.25

 

Table 2. Protectant (contact) fungicides used to control late blight in Bolivia

Chemical class	Common name	Commercial name	Rate (%)
Copper based	Copper oxychloride Cupric hydroxide	Cobox Cupravit Champion	0.4–0.6
Bisdithiocarbamates	Zineb (R=Zn) Maneb(R=Mn) Metiram Mancozeb Propineb	Fungitox Dithane M-45 Dithane F-MB Nemispor Tizoneb Antracol Lonacol	0.3
Phthalimide	Captan	Merpan	0.3
Phthalonitriles	Chlorothalonil	Bravo 500 Bravonil Ultrex	0.3–0.4
Pyridineamines	Fluazinam	Shirlam	0.05

 

Throughout the country farmers spray fungicides two rows at a time when the plants are between 20 and 40 cm high, and row-by-row when the plants are taller than 40 cm. When applying fungicides on two rows at a time farmers tend to miss some plants and this leads to ineffective control (Guamán et al.,1999).

Recommended rates for most fungicides for knapsack sprayers with a capacity of 20 liters is 50 g for systemics in powder form, 50 ml for liquid systemics, 60 g for protectants in powder form, and 60 ml for liquid protectants. In general, farmers measure out fungicides using spoons with an approximate capacity equivalent to 10 g or 10 ml, which means that the recommended rates cannot be obtained with precision.

Some farmers do have measures for liquid fungicides distributed by sales companies specialized in pesticides. A high percentage of farmers apply rates that are lower than those recommended and therefore do not manage to obtain effective blight control (Guamán et al., 1999).

 

Timing of applications

a) Timing of treatments, disease persistence and severity

Most farmers do not fully understand the causes of blight. They believe that it is due to warm, misty or rainy conditions. The usual practice in many blight zones is to apply fungicides only after the appearance of disease symptoms. In general, late blight attacks are severe, causing heavy losses in potential yield.

 

b) Farmer practices

Guamán et al. (1999) indicate that in an area in Morochata, where as in many other blight zones, there are no farmer schools, about half of the farmers interviewed applied fungicides after the appearance of disease symptoms and the other half before. Application is typically carried out with knapsack sprayers, using rates that are 30% lower than those recommended, spraying 2 to 10 times with large intervals between sprays, sometimes using mixtures of two or more systemic fungicides (Macías, 1998; Salazar, 1996; Torréz and Thiele, 1998.) and without ensuring that plants are completely covered. In many areas the farmers used systemic fungicides exclusively with a large number of applications (Navia, 2000). Under these conditions of fungicide treatment, farmers obtain reasonable yields in low incidence years (which are exceptional). However, late blight is usually severe and under these conditions it is common to find abandoned plots where the farmer was unable to control the disease (Fernández-Northcote et al., 1999).

 

c) Seed production practices

The few, most important, seed-producing institutions in the country usually spray 11–16 times a year to obtain a good yield of seed-potatoes (Fernández-Northcote et al., 1999). The chemical control strategy is based on weekly treatments (every 7 days) of protectant and systemic fungicides. The strategy starts with preventive treatment using contact fungicides and switches to systemics at high disease pressures.

Systemics may be applied continuously, with two or more products being used alternately. When this strategy was compared with that of PROINPA, the latter provided significantly better disease control with very low AUDPC values (damage ratings), improved yields (44- 45 % higher), increased profits and less fungicide use compared with the control strategy used by the seed-potato company (Navia et al, 2000).

 

d) Resource availability

Farmers in the late blight areas invest economic resources towards controlling the disease. However, many potato growers are resource-poor and try to buy fungicides on credit from private companies. In this case, treatments begin once the fungicide is available, and the effectiveness of control depends on the moment that fungicide supplies are acquired. If credit cannot be obtained the plots are often abandoned.

 

Adaptation of treatments to specific contexts

Farmers do not usually adapt fungicide treatments to take into account the level of genetic resistance of the cultivars. Resistant and susceptible cultivars are treated in the same way. The adaptation of fungicide applications to specific situations, especially in the past few years, is strongly determined by the level of training received in fungicide use and in other components of integrated management and is, consequently, limited to a small number of farmers, despite the great efforts directed towards farmers’ field schools (FFS), farmers’ variety assessment networks, courses and field days. It is not uncommon to see farmers leaving resistant cultivars untreated, hoping for the best. Because of this inadequate treatment, many cultivars with major genes for late blight resistance, such as Runa Toralapa and others, have lost their resistance in these zones, responding like susceptible cultivars. However, when chemical control is included as part of their management program, these cultivars respond well.

 

In the potato growing zones of Bolivia, farmers say that the presence late blight is related to different altitude zones and planting periods, as indicated in Table 3.

 

Table 3. Planting times, altitude and late blight incidence 

Planting times	Altitude (masl)	Late blight incidence
Llojhi	(April – May)	2100 – 3000 Low
Mishka	(June – July)	2000 – 3300 Low
Early planting	(September – October)	2500 – 3750 High
Normal planting	(October – November)	3000 - 4200 High to Medium

 

Adaptation to climatic conditions

Farmers do not have weather stations, but they recognize that rainy nights, sunny days and mist are associated with blight and base their decisions on fungicide applications on this knowledge.

 

Fungicide resistance

In zones where there has been intensive and excessive fungicide use, especially of systemics, farmers say that the fungicides are no longer effective against blight. However, when the same fungicides are used in these zones within the control strategies developed by PROINPA, i.e. under rational fungicide use, no resistance to systemics is observed. The inefficacy indicated by the farmers is related to untimely applications, low rates of application, and inadequate application practices and equipment. Isolates with intermediate resistance to this fungicide been detected in preliminary studies on metalaxyl resistance undertaken in the laboratory in petri dishes (Plata, G. 1998, personal communication).

 

 

Integrated management

Navia and Fernández-Northcote (1996b; 1999) indicate that the integrated management of blight consists of five important components: chemical control, resistant cultivars, cultural practices, forecasting and regulatory measures. This type of integrated management is now being promoted in Bolivia’s late blight zones.

 

Chemical control strategies

The most widely planted cultivars in the areas of heavy blight pressure of Bolivia, such as Waych’a, Sani Imilla, Iimilla Blanca, Desireé, Alpha, etc., make up more than 80% of the total area planted to potato in Bolivia. These are the cultivars most demanded in the urban centers and most economically important for the farmer, but they are also very susceptible to late blight.

In response to this, PROINPA has developed a strategy of chemical control of late blight on susceptible cultivars that is both efficient and economical (Navia, et al., 1996; Fernández-Northcote et al., 1999; Thiele et al., 1998), which is based on:

 

The preventive application of fungicides (approximately 10 days after 80% emergence), that is, before the appearance of late blight symptoms. This is fundamental to the success of the chemical control strategy, since the first stage of disease development is invisible (it can take between five and seven days from the moment the sporangium lands on the wet leaf surface and penetrates to the appearance of the first symptoms and sporulation). The establishment of the pathogen in the crop is thus reduced by preventive application and, consequently, the development of the epidemic, i.e. disease progress, is slowed down. Farmers and seed producers frequently neglect to take this into account by starting treatment only after the appearance of first symptoms. In this case the disease cannot be controlled effectively and frequently the pseudo-fungus becomes well established, causing severe attacks of the disease.

 

Application intervals of 7–14 days depending on whether or not climatic conditions are very favorable for disease development or not, respectively. Intervals should not exceed 14 days, but in some cases they could be shorter than 7 days if there is higher disease pressure.

 

Alternate applications of systemic and protectant fungicides. This way a population that could be developing resistance to the systemic is eliminated by the contact fungicide.

 

The use of systemic fungicides no more than three times during the season. The number of times the systemic fungicide is used should be restricted to a maximum of three alternated applications per crop and per season in order to avoid the build up of resistance to the systemic fungicide in the pathogen population. This point conforms to the recommendations of the Fungicide Resistance Action Committee (FRAC).

 

The use of a range of systemic and contact fungicides in any one agro-ecological area, in order to reduce the risk of fungicide resistance.

 

Resistant cultivars

There are hundreds of native cultivars in Bolivia. These belong to various species: Solanum stenotomum, S. goniocalyx, S. phureja, S. x ajanhuiri, S. x chaucha S. x juzepczukii, S. andigena and S. curtilobum. Many of these are cultivated where blight is endemic and some have been lost through the appearance of more aggressive races of the pathogen. Fortunately, a wide range of variation is still present in the potato gene pool that can serve as a source of genetic resistance.

 

PROINPA has produced genetically improved cultivars with resistance based on several genes (polygenic resistance). Five blight resistant cultivars have been released in Cochabamba, (Robusta, India, Jaspe, Perla and Puquina) and four in Chuquisaca (Chota Ñawi, Cordillera, Seja and Sureña). Farmers also grow other resistant cultivars, such as Runa Toralapa, Puka Toralapa, Wayna SEPA and Musuj SEPA. However, all of these do not make up more than 20 % of the total area planted to potato. This low adoption of the resistance cultivars is most likely due to a lack of quality seed, little knowledge about the cultivars in the local markets and insufficient publicity to promote them.

 

To guarantee durable resistance, i.e. prevent the formation of new pathogen races capable of overcoming the resistance, PROINPA has developed the following chemical control strategy for these cultivars (Navia y Fernández-Northcote, 1996a; Fernández-Northcote et al., 1999):

 

Initial application of a systemic fungicide upon observation of the first disease symptoms. The early stages of the disease and its progression are much slower in resistant cultivars than in susceptible cultivars, making it possible for applications to begin after the first symptoms are observed.

 

Application of a protectant fungicide if the disease continues to progress, i.e. if sporulating lesions are seen and/or disease is spreading. Alternate (systemic-protectant) fungicide applications, at intervals recommended for the stage of epidemic if the disease continues to advance. The contact fungicide will eliminate any nascent resistant population of P. infestans.

 

Cultural practices

The most important are:

Planting time: Wherever possible cultivation with irrigation, bringing the planting-date forward to avoid rain and favorable blight conditions. This is the approach used for the ‘mishka’ plantings in various parts of the country.

 

Field selection: In preference use fields that have not been planted to potatoes for at last two or three years. Using fields that have been left fallow or rotated with cereals minimizes the presence of inoculum sources, especially volunteer plants (‘k’ipas’).

 

Elimination of volunteer plants (‘k’ipas’ or ‘huachas’): In fallow fields, fields under rotation, and potato fields, volunteer potato plants should be dug up, taken outside the field and burnt. During the period that the land lies fallow, attempts should be made to remove any visible tubers and volunteer plants (‘k’ipas’).

 

Choice of cultivar: In preference, use cultivars with the highest level of resistance to late blight. Cultivars available in Bolivia are indicated in the Technical Advice Sheet PROINPA, FITOPATOLOGIA 3/96.

 

Choice of seed: Seed potatoes should preferably be produced in areas where late blight is absent, or using production conditions that guarantee that the seed potatoes are blight-free.

 

Distance between plants and rows: The spacing used must allow good aeration and reduced humidity levels between plants.

 

High hilling: This reduces tuber infection by sporangia washed down into the soil by rainfall.

 

Passage through the field: Efforts should be made to reduce the frequency of passage through the field as much as possible to avoid carrying pathogen propagules on clothing, animal fur, or farming tools.

 

Foliage removal: Two weeks before harvesting, the foliage should be cut back and removed to a side of the field, or killed using an appropriate herbicide treatment (e.g.Gramoxone). This reduces the risk of sporangia infecting the tubers through the lenticels or wounds. This is particularly important for seed potatoes fields. The pathogen does not survive for long after the death of the foliage. Foliage removal leads to better suberization of the tuber skin, so tubers are less vulnerable to infection.

 

After harvesting, all residues and discarded tubers should be collected and either used immediately as pig feed, or burned or buried deeply (1 m). Do not leave them in the field or in piles by the sides of fields, because they will provide a very large source of inoculum.

 

Avoid harvesting in wet conditions. If tubers are wet they should be left to dry before being bagged and stored in order to avoid the creation favorable conditions for infection and disease spread.

 

Store only healthy tubers: Disease will spread from infected tubers to healthy ones.

 

Forecasting systems for LB

In the USA and in Europe, systems have been developed to forecast the beginning of a blight attack and its incidence to advise when fungicide treatment should begin and the treatment intervals for susceptible cultivars. In this way, fungicides are only applied when necessary and with an appropriate number of treatments.

These forecasting systems are based on recording of the number of hours at or above 90% relative humidity for different temperature ranges, from which data the degree of severity is determined. Threshold values are determined based on the degrees of severity during the past seven days and the total number of days with favorable rainfall during these seven days. In accordance with the threshold value, recommendations are issued as to whether or not to treat, and at what application interval (every five or seven days).

Data on temperature, relative humidity and rainfall recorded by weather stations in farmers’ fields are sent to a computer for processing and analysis. Based on this, the computer then indicates the appropriate action to take.

These forecasting systems are presently being tested in Bolivia (Navia, personal communication). Their efficiency depends on the agro-ecological area and the coordination of the farmers in the given area. Their use results in better blight management and lower fungicide use.

 

Regulatory measures

In the future, better integrated management of late blight will depend on farmers within an area committing themselves to coordinated action to carry out all of the components of the integrated management scheme. Integrated management will be far less effective if one farmer puts it into practice, but his neighbor does not.

 

The resistance of any cultivar will be more durable if its use is coordinated in space and time. Coordination in space implies that farmers agree to use one cultivar in one growing area (community) and a different one in the growing area next to it (another community). Coordination in time implies that different cultivars are used in successive years, rather than in different places. This rotation of resistant cultivars has the effect of rotating the resistance genes present in the cultivars, thus reducing the likelihood of pathogen variants able to overcome the resistance of cultivars becoming predominant in the population. This rotation of resistant cultivars is particularly important when major genes contribute to the resistance.

 

Intuitional set up

The main sources of information about fungicides and other management options for farmers are:

 

Local agricultural fairs

Provincial agrochemical suppliers

Agrochemical suppliers in villages

Agricultural suppliers in the towns

Technical assistance institutions (PROINPA, NGOs, etc)

 

Other relevant information

The populations of Phytophthora infestans in the areas affected by blight in Bolivia are very complex. However, only one compatibility (mating) type, the A2 form, has been detected (Plata and Fernández-Northcote, 1996). The introduction of potato cultivars from other countries is therefore inadvisable at present except in the form of vitro plants because tubers could introduce the A1 population into Bolivia.

 

Literature cited

Bojanic, A. 1995. Sondeo sobre demanda nacional de semilla de papa para el sector formal y su

pertinencia para la UPS-SEPA. Informe. Cooperación Técnica Suiza. La Paz, Bolivia.

 

Fernández-Northcote, E.N., Navia, O. y Gandarillas, A. 1999. Basis of the Strategies for the Chemical Control of Potato Late Blight Developed by PROINPA in Bolivia . Revista Latinoamericana de la Papa 11: 1–25.

 

Fernández-Northcote, E.N. y Plata, G. 1998. Tipo sexual de apareamiento en poblaciones de

Phytophthora infestans que afectan a la papa en Bolivia y su implicancia sobre el centro de origen de P. infestans. Páginas 63–64 en: Compendio de Exposiciones XVIII Reunión de la Asociación Latinoamericana de la Papa. Febrero 9–13, 1998, Cochabamba, Bolivia.

 

Horton, D. 1992. La Papa. Producción, Comercialización y Programas. CIP, Lima y Hemisferio Sur, Montevideo, Uruguay.

 

Macías, E. 1998. Validación participativa de la estrategia de control químico del tizón (Phytophthora infestans) con agricultores en las comunidades de Morochata. Tésis Ing. Agr. UMSS, Cochabamba, Bolivia.

 

Navia, O. y Fernández-Northcote, E.N. 1996a. Estrategias para la integración de resistencia y control químico del tizón. Fitopatología, Ficha Técnica 3, PROINPA. Cochabamba, Bolivia.

 

Navia, O. y Fernández-Northcote, E.N. 1996b. Manejo integrado del tizón (MIP-Tizón). Fitopatología, Ficha Técnica 4, PROINPA. Cochabamba, Bolivia.

 

Navia, O., Equize, H. y Fernández-Northcote, E.N. 1996. Estrategias para el control químico de tizón. Fitopatologia, Ficha Técnica 2, PROINPA. Cochabamba, Bolivia.

 

Navia, O. y Fernandez-Northcote, E.N. 1999. Manejo integrado del tizón. pp. 1–12 en: Memorias del Taller sobre Manejo Integrado del Tizón Tardío de la Papa en la Ecoregión Andina. 7–9 Abril, 1997, Quito, Ecuador.

 

Navia, O., Gandarillas, A. y Fernández-Northcote, E.N. 1999. Como reconocer al tizón. Ciclo de la enfermedad. Proyecto MIP-Tizón, Serie de Diapositivas Didácticas 1/99, Fundación PROINPA.

Cochabamba, Bolivia.

 

Navia, O.; Gandarillas, A. y Fernandez-Northcote, E.N. 2000. Validación de estrategias de control químico del tizón con instituciones. p. 53 en: Memorias XX Congreso de la Asociación Latinoamericana de la Papa. La Habana, Cuba. Febrero 28– Marzo 5, 2000.

 

Salazar, M. 1996. Evaluación inicial del grado de adopción de la estrategia para el control químico del tizón [Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary] en seis comunidades de Morochata. Tesis Ing. Agr. UMSS, Cochabamba, Bolivia.

 

Thiele, G., Navia, O. y Fernández-Northcote, E.N. 1998. Análisis económico de la estrategia de control químico del tizón (Phytophthora infestans) para cultivares de papa susceptibles en Cochabamba, Bolivia. Fitopatología 33:176–181.

 

Torrez, R. y Thiele, G. 1998. El uso de jampis, épocas de siembra y cultivares: diagnósticos participativos y capacitación en el manejo integrado del tizón. pp. 190–191 en: Compendio de Exposiciones XVIII Reunión de la Asociación Latinoamericana de la Papa. Cochabamba, Bolivia. Febrero 9–13, 1998.

 

Zeballos, H. 1997. Aspectos económicos de la producción de papa en Bolivia. COSUDE-Centro

Internacional de la Papa(CIP). Lima, Perú.

 

1 Translated from Spanish. E.N Fernandez-Northcote (ed). 2002. Memorias del Taller Internacional

Complementando la Resistencia al Tizón (Phytophthora infestans) en los Andes, Febrero 13–16, 2001,

Cochabamba, Bolivia, GILB, Taller Latinoamérica 1. Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP), Lima, Peru.

2 PROINPA (Foundation for the Research and Promotion of Andean Products; formerly Convenio IBTA-CIPCOSUDE),

Cochabamba, Bolivia. Email: onavia(at)proinpa.org

 

Links to World Potato Atlas (WPA)

 

(English)

http://research.cip.cgiar.org/confluence/display/wpa/Bolivia

 

 

(Spanish)

http://research.cip.cgiar.org/confluence/pages/viewpage.action?pageId=13193